Classification of Research

Classification of Research

According to work and designs research has many types and comes in different forms.

There are qualitative & quantitative research, basic & applied research, and inductive & deductive research.

Figure: 2.01 The following figure indicates the classifications of research..

Research According to Approaches

Idiographic Approach

This approach tends not to use inferential or descriptive statistics, but rather uses

qualitative methods of data gathering such as interviews, diaries, and other written

materials, obtained from or provided by the expected or anticipated respondents of a

particular research. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning

“own” or “private”. (Carl Dellomos, 2009).

Idiographic approach includes a single subject in a study. Case study (clinical

psychology), observational study, and single subjects experiment (conducted by

behaviorists, gestalt school of thoughts and case studies are mostly conducted by dynamic

psychologists e.g., Freud, Breuer, and many by other post-Freudian) are the examples of

idiographic approach. This approach tends not to use inferential or descriptive statistics,

but rather uses qualitative methods of data gathering such as interviews, diaries, and other

written materials, obtained from or provided by the expected or anticipated respondents of

a particular research.

Case-study (see chapter: 05) and single-subject experiments (see chapter: 10) are

the examples of idgraphic approaches.

Nomothetic Approach

The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos” meaning “law”.

Psychologists who implement this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we

distribute with others. That is to say in establishing laws or generalizations (Carl Dellomos,

2009),

Nomothetic approach includes wide range of subjects or participant in the study

and determined their performance on average basis using the normal distribution,

measurement of central tendency, and measurement of desperation. Science in usually

and psychology in exacting, use nomothetic approach for the description of behaviors,

phenomenon and events. Using this approach psychologists make wide generalization and

general laws. The average assessment allows researchers to predict that what an organism

like in general. Surveys researches, between group studies, quasi-experiments are the examples of Nomothetic Approach.

 This approach essentially used inferential and

descriptive statistics as both mediums of scientific method of research in analyzing,

presenting, and interpretation of data, gathered by the researcher through identical or

objective instruments (e.g. psychological Tests).

According to Methods (of Data Collection & Analysis)
Figure: 2.02:

According to methods, there are two types of research; qualitative & quantitative and combination of both method the design is  known as “Mixed-Design

Qualitative Approach

Qualitative Research emphasizes the understanding of social phenomena through direct

observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, (Archrivals). In

Qualitative research social facts have subjective reality and subjectively measured.

Qualitative researches are conducted to explore the issues, understanding of phenomena,

and answering the questions, often using the unstructured (qualitative) data.

In qualitative research variable are complicated, composite, and not easy to

measure, often uses inductive observation for data collection, the purpose of qualitative

research is to supply insights into the setting of the problem, generating ideas and

hypotheses for later quantitative research. To explore prevalent trends in thoughts

attitudes, views, and opinions are the purposes of qualitative research. Unstructured or

semi-structured techniques e.g. individual depth interviews or group discussions are tools

in qualitative research (See the next chapter: Three & Fifteen.

Examples are the case study; the case can be an individual person, an event, a

group, or an institution. Observation (naturalistic and field study) and historical research,

Historical; Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past

occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects or trends these events

that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events (Gay, 1996)

Quantitative Method

Quantitative research involves Numerical assessment of data, applying the statistical

analysis to psychological research, and the development of new statistical approaches for

measuring and explaining human behavior. It is a young field (only recently have Ph.D.

programs in quantitative psychology has been started), and it is a combination of the

subfields psychometrics and mathematical psychology.

Quantitative researches are pure in nature, mostly use statistical hypotheses testing, quantitative data gathering using structured and predetermined (using scales,

questionnaires, and psychological test) and statistical methods mostly inferential statistics

is use in quantitative data analysis. . We use interval and ratio scale of measurement to

collect the data in quantitative research. Social facts are objectively evaluated and

measured. Quantitative research begins with clear hypotheses, operational definition can

be made easily, variable can be identified, and associations and relationships, prediction,

and causation among variable are measurable. In quantitative research generally a large

number of cases representing the population of attention and Subjects are selected using

random sampling. In quantitative approach researchers enumerate data and simplify and

apply the findings from a sample to a population of interest. Surveys and experimental

researches are the examples of quantitative research.

Mixed designs

Mixed design is a combination of Qualitative and quantitative methods of research.

Sometimes Experimental and co-relational techniques are combined, the design called

mixed design. Here participants who can be separated into precise populations (for

example, schizophrenic versus normal) are assigned as groups to each experimental

condition. In this way, variables such as psychosis or normality are not manipulated or

induced by the investigator. Instead, they are correlated with the experiment condition.

Research According to Purposes;

Basic Research;

Also called Pure or Fundamental Research, it is mostly conducted to increase in knowledge

by describing the behavior, event, and phenomenon. Basic research seeks primarily to

understand behavior and mental processes. People often describe basic research as seeking

knowledge for their own purposes. Basic research is also used to test a theory conducted in laboratory settings. There is no direct benefit because it is a research for the achievement of

research. It is conducted to satisfy any interest such as:

(a) what makes things occur,

(b) why culture changes and

(c) why societal relations are in a certain way.

In fact, it is the foundation of most new theories, principles and ideas. Basic research infrequently helps anyone openly. It only stimulates new ways of thinking. The main motivation is to enlarge

man's information. There is absolutely no profitable value to the discovery resulting from

such research.
Applied Research; 

 Research on creating changes is frequently called “Applied Research”

 It is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and methods for solving a

presented problem. It interacts with practical problems. It is different to pure research

which is not problem-oriented but for the increase in knowledge which may or may not

be used in future.

 In the nearby situation, more importance is being given to applied research to solve

problems arising out of overpopulation and shortage of natural resources.

In applied research psychologists conduct research in order to change people lives for the

betterment for misery mental disorders, to find out and treat the problems in organization

settings. However applied psychologists are involved with many types of intervention

including those aiming at the lives of students in school, employ at work and industrial in

the community.

Research According To Logic

Logic is sequence and cycle use to formulate the hypothesis which later becomes the

foundation or base for research. There are two types of logic use in research; inductive

logic (sometimes called non-scientific and qualitative) and deductive logic (scientific and

quantitative). Inductive and deductive logic are also called inductive and deductive

reasoning and inductive and deductive methods; both inductive and deductive methods

were given by a Greek philosopher “Aristotle”.
Inductive Logic (From Parts to Whole)

Geek philosopher Socrates provided the concept of inductive reasoning. Inductive

reasoning is an exacting to common reasoning where the mental process is concerned in

creating generalizations from the experimental occurrence or principles. It usually

constitutes the three essential tools of thinking and is also called induction.

Inductive reasoning constructs and evaluates propositions that are abstractions of

observations. It makes generalizations based on individual instances.

Figure 2.03: Logic of Inductive Method (Also called Lower to Upper-Specific to General)

The above given diagram shows logic of reasoning or observation which guides us to build

a theory. The above diagram involves a journey from exact position “observation” to a

wide-ranging termination “theory”. These are the ways of “theory construction” where

precise facts are used to construct a theory that describes the links and relationships among

the whole story and observable facts. So you probably already know that relationship

between or among any things allow the researchers to make prediction about behavior or

co-occurrence of events.

The Process and steps of Induction
Induction is a process of reasoning to formulate the hypothesis to guide the theory
constructions or general premise.
Figure: 2.04 The process and steps of induction

 State the Question

Think and state your question that what sorts of information do you wants to obtain.

 Make Observation

Observe the surroundings to collect and record the data which can help you to find the

answers of your question.

 Form a Hypothesis

After the gatherings of data think, predict, and apply what you observe and form a

hypothesis.

 Testing

Test your hypothesis by performing an experiment.

 Analyze

Check the results of your experiment to realize what they involve.

 Draw Conclusion

Based on the analysis of your results, develop a general principle as the answer of your

question.
Here is an example:
 I am a man.
 I am vegetarian.
 Mostly men are vegetarians.
Though the above premises seem to be true, but may be vary because everyone would not

like to eat vegetables by the refusal of doctors or due to any other reason. So this method is

not entirely and always true. And we can say this is frail method than the deductive method

(you will see the next method deductive method).

Another example is;

The integer 5 is an odd number and 7 is also an odd number, if we add to both values 5+7

then result will be 12 in even. So the integer numbers 5 and 7 are specific and conclusion

12 is general.

The inductive method is an effective process to obtain the observation-based

general conclusion about the phenomenon or world. It is natural form of process to making

the logical assumptions that what we observe. A correct inductive argument may have true

premises and a false conclusion. Inductive method helps us;

 To understand that how logical conclusions are drawn

 To apply small, concrete ideas to larger abstract concepts

 To transfer principle and conclusions to new encountered information

 To develop problem-solving skills

Deductive Method (From Whole to Parts)

The deductive method is an approach to reasoning, which is based on assumptions and

starts from a general point (theory) and illustrate a conclusion about something more

specific (confirmation). Logic is used in the deductive method can be offered, officially or

casually, in a diversity of different ways. One of the most general forms of the deductive

method is the syllogism, in syllogism two restricted statements are given and from them a

termination (confirmation) is drawn.

Figure 2.05: Logic of Deductive Method (Also called Upper to Lower & General to Specific).

Like Sherlock Hoolm the starting point is a given position and moving to a definite

termination. All related information is assembled, studies to solve the secrecy. Greek

philosopher “Aristotle” described that deduction as; “drawing conclusions by applying

rules or principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution”.

Undefined Terms

Start anywhere, with any meanings and statements, and choose common and self-evident

terms and assume that “everyone is on the same page”.

 Definition

When you agreed on some undefined terms, use them to create definitions. When you will

elucidate the undefined terms you will come on the point to create some definition about

these terms.

 Axioms/Postulate

Simple and obvious true statements are called axioms or postulates. Your axioms should be minimum in numbers.

 Theorems

It is a time to combine the axioms, definitions, and un-defined terms with rules of logic to

prove that other statements (theorems) must be true.

 Prove/Confirmation

When a theorem is proven then use it along with other proven theorems, axioms, and

undefined terms to prove other theorems.

Following is an example;
 All men are human. (General no specific to one man)
 Socrates is man.
 (Therefore) Socrates is human (specific),

Research and its Chracteristics

 Understanding about Research

Academic psychologists’ central point is totally on research and psychological
theory, trying to additional psychological understanding and other psychologists may work
in applied psychology to organize such knowledge for useful benefits to improve the lives
of people. However, these approaches are not equally restricted and mostly psychologists
will be involved in both researching and applying psychology. Clinical psychology aims at
rising in practice, psychologist’s findings, knowledge, and experience with research will
carry on construction up as well as employing as they treat individuals with psychological
issues.

Social research is the scientific study of society to find out the facts and to
describe the behaviors in natural settings. More exclusively, social research examines a
society’s behaviors, attitudes, assumptions, beliefs, trends, and rules. Popular topics of
social research include social adjustment, racism, poverty and class issues, development of
behaviors and attitudes, and criminal behavior.

Research;

 A process of collecting data through scientific methods is called research.
 In the broadest sense of the words, the definition of research includes any gathering of
data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge (Shuttleworth, M. 2008).
 In general terms, scientific research consists of an investigation that:
 Seeks answers to a question
 Systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
 Collects evidence
 Produces findings that were not determined in advance
 produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
The Scientific Definition
 The firm definition of scientific research is performing a methodological study in order
to confirm a hypothesis or answer a precise question. Finding an ultimate answer is the
central goal of any scientific process.
 In simple words research is scientific, systematic and organized process to find out the
facts and to explore the reality. It also may used to test the theory.

Research also means 

that you are going to add something new in previous work.

Here;

 Scientific means research follows the principles of scientific method.

 Organized in that there is an organization or method in going about doing research. It
is a designed procedure, not an impulsive one. It is paying attention and restricted to an
exact scope.

Systematic means because there is a specific set of steps which you will follow.

 There
are definite things in the research process which are always done in order to get the
mainly perfect results.

 Finding Answers is the last step of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even an easy question, research is victorious when we discover answers.
Sometimes the answer is not fund, but it is at rest an answer (Shaugnessy, J. Research
Methods in Psychology 9
th Ed).

Research is systematic and organized process whose center of attention is to solve a problem or to find the answer of question passing through different steps (later you
will see all steps in chapter: 17).

In research process the problem is logically organized and
questions are devised about problem in systematic way. Hypothesis is formulated from
research problem and research question and tested by observation (using induction or
deduction method). Relevant data is collected and analyzed and true results (answer of
definite question) are found. Research does not mean to make mere experiences and
guesses but it is a set of process with different steps.

Characteristics of Research
Objectives of Research;

 It captures the natural occurrence.
 It determines the real creation.
 It grasps the scientific control.
 It identifies the regularities in social life by comparing and constructing data.
 It seeks to find clarification to unexplained social phenomenon.
 Follows the scientific and objective method
 Systematic collection of data
 Systematic interpretation of data
 To make easy understanding of human behavior.
 To describe human behaviors and to increase academic knowledge.
 To test the theory or hypotheses and finding the solution of problems.
 To illustrate the phenomenon with some degree of confidence.
 To make prediction about phenomenon, events or behavior.
 To find out the natural laws that regulates or directs social phenomena.
 To regulate the society notion, e.g. culture, cohort gap, social detachment etc.
 To identify efficient association existing in a social phenomena.
 To devise solution to social problems.
 To maintain social organization, remove social stress, misapprehension.
 Helps illuminate doubts and correct misconception about facts of life.

Goals of Science and Scientific Methods

Goals of Scientific Method
The scientific method has four goals: description, prediction, explanation, and
application.
Figure: 1.02 Goals of Scientific Method

 Description
Social scientists try to find and describe the events and relationship among the factors
causing the events. Researchers mostly use nomothetic approach (Nomothetic approach
includes wide range of subjects or participant in the study and determined their
performance on average basis using the normal distribution, measurement of central
tendency, and measurement of desperation) and quantitative analysis. Description is the
process which researchers use to explain, define, and categorize the events and
relationships among the factors. For example Clinical psychologists use the DSM-V to
classify the behavior and disorders on the basis of symptoms.
 Prediction
Co relational relationship permit researchers to predict about behavior and events but do
not allows them to deduce that what the causes of this relationship are?
Prediction is the declaration or set of statements about what will be observed
prior to it actually present. It is the complicated operation involving comprehensive
knowledge of phenomena under deliberation, including related facts and vital principles.
Description of events and their relationship frequently provide the foundation to
prediction.
For example: does children of broken family or separated family are more
vulnerable to develop emotional maladjustment? Do the illiteracy and poverty are the causes of terrorism? These information not-only provide an immense knowledge in the
fields of social sciences but also helpful in prediction, action, and prevention.
 Explanation
There are three conditions to assert the causal inference: co variation, time-order
relationship, elimination of plausible alternative causes.
A simple example will help you to understand these three conditions. Suppose
you walk for a mile and feel pain in your legs. Presumably you would infer that walking
for a mile causes pain in legs. This is the first condition of causal inference, that waking
for a mile co varies with leg’s pain. When one condition changes this automatically
creates changes to other.
Time-order relationship is the second condition for causal inference. It is also
known as contingency. In first condition pain occurred after walking for a mile. If the
pain occurs before you walk, then you would not infer that walking for a mile causes pain
in legs.
Finally, causal explanations are accepted only when other possible causes have
been removed—when plausible alternative causes have been eliminated.
Threats to the studies of psychology occur when there are deficiencies
(confounding) occur during the conducting of psychological studies. These threats are
dangers to validity of psychological research or studies. In this chapter we will discuss
that how and from where these threats come and how can we control or minimize these
threats.
 Application
In applied research, researchers apply their knowledge and findings to improve people’s
lives. Application is generalizability (external validity) of results (scientifically obtained
usually from experiments) to other or real situation obtained from a part of population
called sample and sample is the proportion of population consider the representative of
whole population of interest. External validity is the degree/criteria to which research
conclusion provides an exact explanation and depiction of what normally happening in
the real world. A research has high external validity if it has high internal validity so
external validity dependent on internal validity and when External Validity is high, the
generalizations are truthful and can represent the external world as real world related to
the study. External Validity becomes very important when findings come from statistical
analysis of the statistical research because you sure that you have an accurate
representation of the population and when external validity is low, the integrity of your
research comes into uncertainty. You can reduce the threats of external validity by
making sure that sample should be select randomly, sample size should be large, and
strictly follow and use the random assignment then application will become more
reliable.

What is Science

Science means objectively and abstractly understanding of phenomenon/events and
objectively collects the data and information about these events under the standardized
conditions. Science itself doesn’t a subject, the subject which uses the scientific method
for the investigation and research is called science. Many subjects called science because
they use scientific method for investigation. Now psychology is also a science because its
studies depend upon scientific investigation. To prove the psychology as a science firstly
we will try to understand the meaning of science and scientific method, that what are the
assumptions, canons, conditions and procedure of science and scientific method?
The Four Basic Tenets of Science
Before the understanding and description of psychology as a science, we need the
understanding about basic canons (standards) of science. It is important to know the four
primary principles that come into view to be accepted by almost all scientists.
 Determinism
The first standard of science is the determinism; it means that any event or phenomena
has meaningful and systematic causes. Scientists have to follow the canon of determinism
in order to keep the logic of science, if they do not follow then orderly, systematic causes
would not exist.
 Empiricism
The second principle of science is empiricism; too simply empiricism means to make
observation of events or phenomena, but in deep logic of pure science empiricism means
the deductive analysis of events. This is the best way to find out the orderly principle to
explore the events to identify the causes. Empiricism or observation is favorite tool for
both scientist and psychologists (social scientists).
 Parsimony
The third essential supposition of science to which most scientific schools of thoughts are
agreed is parsimony, is often referred to as Occam’s razor, because most of argument
about parsimony were made by English philosopher William of Occam. According to the
principle of parsimony the scientific theories and investigations should be simple,
concise, focused, and should avoid unnecessary concepts and explanations.
Approximately all scientists have the same opinion that if we have any problem with
solution of two theories and both are equal in their work then we should prefer the
simpler, parsimonious theory to make empirical observation. The inner and centered
tender of parsimony canon is to keep continue the process of investigation or theory until
to make it as simple and focused as possible. Psychology as a behavior science also
follows the role of science called parsimony in the development of theories as well as in
investigations.
Testability
The ultimate and chief tenet of science is the supposition that scientific theories are
supposed to be testable by using present accessible research techniques. Here testability
and research techniques are indication of empiricism and falsifiability. Falsifiability
means that researchers do extra work to examine the every dimension and concepts of
theory in order to seek that theory could be false. In social science or in psychology, the
concepts of testability and falsifiability are extremely significant for psychologists,
because many important and most running theories like the theory of Freud and work of
post-Freudian are much difficult to put them any kind of objective observation or test.